see also:

• historical aspects and main differences between the ACEIs
• pharmacology main index
• angiotensin
• cardiology
• Aust Presc Oct 2009 - renin inhibitors - mechanism of action
• Aust Presc Oct 2009 - renin inhibitors - clinical implications

• ACE is an enzyme that converts:
  • inactive angiotensin I → vasoconstrictor peptide angiotensin II;
  • vasodilator peptide bradykinin → inactive fragments;
• ACE is found in endothelial cells lining all blood vessels as well as in the lung, brain, kidney, adrenals, GIT, & reproductive system;
• ACE inhibition thus:
  • interrupts renin-angiotensin-aldosterone cascade →
    • decr. circulating angiotensin II → vasodilatation & decr. symp.N.S.;
      • decr. aldosterone secretion → short-term natriuresis & decr. K losses;
      • ⇒ incr. renin levels;
    • decr. local tissue angiotensin II
      • → decr. GFR esp. if GFR dependent on AG-II maintaing efferent tone:
      • eg. low RBF such as renal artery stenosis esp.bilat.;
  • inhibition of bradykinin breakdown → incr. PG production → vasodil.;
    • may result in bradykinin local XS:
      • coughing (1-13%);
      • angioedema (v.rare) - see hereditary angioedema (HAE);
  • THUS → vasodilatation → decr. TPR → hypotension;
  • NB.in HT:
    • C.O., LVEDF, HR unchanged;
    • HR not changed as decr. resetting baro. & incr. vagal
  • NB. in CCF:
    • HR unchanged but decr. LVEDF → incr. C.O.
  • BUT:
    • peripheral blood flow, esp. cerebral is maintained;
    • normal haemodynamic response to exercise/stress/GA maintained;
    • postural effects are minimal unless hypovolaemia is present;

• ACE inhib. are effective, well tolerated in most types & grades of severity of hypertension & in mild-severe essential HT are as potent & effective single agent Rx as beta-blockers or diuretics;
• Their efficacy can be improved by combination with a low Na diet, or a K-losing diuretic or Ca antagonist.
• They are ideal in the elderly except care if renal impairment or extensive vascular disease;

• ACE inhib. lower BP smoothly & rapidly within 20min (captopril) & 1hr (enalapril) whilst maintaining cerebral & renal blood flow but care with dosage as the hypovolaemia potentiates hypotensive effect of ACE inhib.

• As HT in this case is Renin-AG dependent, ACE inhib. are very effective & the Rx of choice for unilat.renal A stenosis whilst awaiting Sx but may precipitate ARF if bilat. stenoses or stenosis to sole kidney as there will not be any compensatory incr. GFR in good kidney to maintain renal function!!

• ACE inhib. effective as also maintains RBF & control BP without significant hypovolaemia & may slow the decline in renal function in diabetic nephropathy.
• Not for pregnancy as teratogenic!

• ACE inhib. are the single most important advance in Rx CCF since diuretics.
• They improve cardiovasc. haemodynamics (as above) resulting in:
  • improved symptoms;
  • incr. exercise tolerance;
  • improved heart size;
  • incr. LV ejection fraction;
  • improves cardiac remodelling after AMI;
  • decr. ventricular ectopic beats & arrhythmias:
    • ? via incr. K status;
    • ? via decr. symp. N.S. activity;
  • prolongs life reducing overall mortality in severe CCF by 27%;
• ACE inhib. is usually combined with K-losing diuretics ± digoxin;

• with diuretics:
  • NEVER with K-sparing diuretics!!!!
  • K-losing diuretics good in CCF or essential HT;
• with calcium channel blockers:
  • good in HT with IHD or if severe/resistant HT;
• with beta-blockers:
  • not particularly effective;
• with alpha-blockers:
  • potent combination (eg. prazosin);
  • but rarely necessary as high risk of hypotension;

• History of HS reaction to ACE inhib.
• History of angioneurotic oedema assoc. with ACE inhib.;
• Pregnancy (category D) / lactation

• Impaired renal function:
  • bilat. renal A stenosis or stenosis lone kidney → reversible ARF;
  • most ACE inhib. are renally excreted;
  • occasional incr. urea/CRN assoc. with ACE inhib. may indicate decr. dose needed;
• Hyperkalaemia:
  • avoid using K-sparing diuretics as well;
  • esp. if: renal insuff.; D.M.; K supplements;
• Impaired liver function:
  • Reversible abn. LFT's have occurred during Rx with ACE inhib.
  • Use with care if impaired liver function;
• General Anaesthesia:
  • Agents that produce hypotension which is normally compensated by renin release may produce uncompensated hypotension if ACE inhib.
• Persistent cough esp. females & on lying down may need decr. dose or cessation;
• Safety not established in children;
• Best to withdraw drugs that raise plasma renin levels before commencing ACE inhibitors, for example: diuretics, potent vasodilators;

• diuretics: additive effects, beware incr. K with K-sparing or oral K supplements;
• lithium carbonate: lithium excretion may be decr. as well as Na;
• non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): may decr. anti-HT effects of ACE inhib.
• SPPS: as contains pre-kallikrein, may cause hypotension;

• 3-10% dizziness; headache; hypotension; N/V/D; cough; rash; angina;
• others less common incl. rarely angioneurotic oedema;