see also:

• toxinology
• blue-green algae (BGA) toxins in waterways
• food poisoning
• air pollution and health risks
• bio-accumulations and long term health
• Toxins (Basel). 2010 Sep Naturally Occurring Food Toxins

• anything taken too much is bad for you - even water and oxygen
• foods can cause illness if:
  • a person has a medically specific intolerance
  • a person has an allergy
  • the food contains toxins
  • foods that adversely interact with medicines
  • excessive amounts of certain types of food constituents are ingested
  • the food is contaminated with pathogenic organisms or toxins - see food poisoning
  • food is contaminated with or absorbs endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) - these usually cause long term repeated exposures causing chronic issues such as infertility, neurologic issues, etc

• these include:
  • gliaden gluten in those with coeliac disease
  • favism (broad beans) causing haemolytic anaemia in those with G6PD deficiency
  • many inherited rare conditions

• warfarin efficacy and vitamin K intake
• foods which induce or inhibit hepatic enzyme systems which metabolise medicines
  • Hypericin in St. John’s wort
• foods or substances which impair the absorption of oral medicines from the gut
  • many medicines need to be taken on an empty stomach for this reason

• lactose intolerance in those with low levels of lactose dehydrogenase in their gut
• FODMAPs in those with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
• many suffer dyspepsia with certain foods such as sun dried tomatoes, capsaicin, high-fat, high-gluten and ultra-processed foods
  • there may be a tolerance factor: chronic exposure to capsaicin may desensitize the oesophagus, modulate transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) receptors, and reduce mucosal hypersensitivity
• alcohol in those with gastritis
• fatty foods in those with biliary colic
• monosodium glutamate (MSG) appears to cause symptoms such as headaches, sweating, difficulty breathing and face tightness in a minority of people although it is not clear if MSG itself is to blame
• foods that may result in positive drug tests for those who need to have zero drug test results
  • poppy seeds may give a false positive codeine result
• glycerol
  • glycerol intoxication syndrome in young children from drinking ice slush drinks made with glycerol ¹⁾
  • manufacturers sometimes use glycerol instead of high sugar content to keep the slushy texture of slush ice drinks. These drinks are particularly marketed at children.
  • can cause reduced consciousness (drowsiness/coma), very low blood sugar levels with high lactic acid levels, and glycerol was found in their urine

• one in 10 cases of listeriosis infection in Australia occur in pregnant women and although cases in Australia are relatively rare, the consequences are dire with 1 in 5 cases of listeriosis in pregnant women proving fatal for the developing foetus
• foods which may contain Listeria monocytogenes / Listeriosis or Salmonella ²⁾
  • paté
  • processed meats - DON'T EAT unless thoroughly cooked to at least 75oC and eaten soon afterwards
  • raw meat - beef, pork, mince must be cooked to at least 71degC and eaten while hot
  • cold cooked poultry
  • poultry stuffing
  • hot cooked poultry or seafood that has gone cold and not reheated to at least 60degC and used within a day
  • raw seafood
  • chilled peeled prawns
  • sushi unless you make your own and there is no raw meat or seafood and it is eaten immediately
  • soft and semi-soft cheese, eg, brie, camembert, ricotta, fetta, blue
  • soft serve or fried ice cream
  • unpasteurised dairy
  • raw eggs
  • pre-prepared salads
  • pre-prepared or pre-packaged sandwiches and wraps
  • rockmelon or pre-cut fruit
  • unwashed fruit or vegetables
  • bean or alfalfa sprouts
  • hummus, tahini and any other sesame paste
• fish with risk of high levels of mercury - but safe to consume 2-3 serves of any type of tuna or salmon a week, canned or fresh
• ginger should be avoided at levels > 1g/d or in those who are bleeding, have a bleeding disorder or are in labour
• “diet soft drinks” during pregnancy may increase risk of obesity in children as they get over 7 years age in a dose-dependent manner ³⁾
• BPA exposure
  • the combination of BPA and retinoic acid (RA) appears to trigger abnormal brain and facial development by overstimulating RA-responsive genes, particularly a group known as HOX genes ⁴⁾
• nitrate exposure from contaminated water at >0.1 mg/L in 1st TM appears to increase risk of pre-term labour ⁵⁾
• pesticide exposures:
  • chlorpyrifos, a commonly used insecticide on fruit and vegetables appears to be toxic in prenatal exposures, particularly affecting the baby's glial cells and has been linked to lower fetal growth, lower birth weight, smaller head size, abnormal newborn reflexes, fine motor speed and motor programming in both hands, and other disorders⁶⁾

• many people have true allergies to various foods especially nuts, shellfish which may result in life threatening anaphylaxis even in small quantities
• rarely some may develop an allergy to quinine (eg. in tonic water) and this may result in acute renal failure requiring dialysis
• undercooked or raw shiitake mushrooms (Lentinula edodes) may cause pruritic flagellate erythema / shiitake dermatitis - a toxic or hypersensitivity reaction to lentinan which affects ~2% of people who eat them undercooked and presents a couple of days after ingestion

• excessive sodium (eg. salt or other sodium containing additives such as monosodium glutamate (MSG) ) may cause hypernatraemia as well as hypertension
  • the global average sodium intake for adults is estimated to be 4,310 milligrams per day (equivalent to 10.8 grams per day equivalent of table salt), which is more than double the WHO recommendation of less than 2,000 mg each day of sodium (or less than 5g per day salt)
• ultra-processed foods
  • these often have high levels of salt, nitrates, and a range of other food additives
    • the following additives reflective of ultra-processing of foods were found to be linked to higher mortality in a 2025 study⁷⁾:
      • glutamate and ribonucleotides (flavor enhancers); acesulfame, saccharin, and sucralose (sweeteners); caking agents, firming agents, thickeners (processing aids); and fructose, inverted sugar, lactose, and maltodextrin (sugars).
  • high levels of these foods are linked with a range of conditions including:
    • metabolic syndrome, type II diabetes, hypertension, stroke and cardiovascular disease
    • cancers
      • gastric cancer
      • lung cancers
        • a 2025 study showed those in the highest quarter of energy-adjusted UPF consumption were 41% more likely to be diagnosed with lung cancer than those in the lowest quarter ⁸⁾
• excessive water may cause hyponatraemia
• fructose
  • excessive intake of fructose may cause:
    • malabsorption symptoms (diarrhoea, flatus, abdominal cramps) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
    • obesity, the metabolic syndrome, gout and diabetes mellitus ⁹⁾
  • glucose-fructose mix in sugary drinks
    • appears to fuel metastasis speed of colorectal cancer (bowel cancer) to the liver by activating an sorbitol dehydrogenase (SORD), which boosts glucose metabolism and triggers the cholesterol pathway, ultimately driving metastasis ¹⁰⁾
• fat soluble vitamins such as:
  • vitamin A - eating excessive amounts of liver, egg yolk, etc
  • vitamin D - eating excessive amounts of fatty fish like salmon, herring, and mackerel, and egg yolks
• pyridoxine (vitamin B6) supplementation of foods and drinks (especially if also take pyridoxine tablets) may result in toxicity causing peripheral neuropathy
• flourine - flouridation of water supplies may lead to dental flourosis (cosmetic mottling of teeth) and if very high levels from other sources, skeletal flourosis and possible other effects but these are rare
• ginger
• lectins
  • can bind to and agglutinate red blood cells is well known and used for blood typing
  • can bind avidly to mucosal cells and interfere with nutrient absorption from the intestine
  • lectins isolated from black beans can produce growth retardation when fed to rats at 0.5% of the diet, and lectin from kidney beans causes death within two weeks when fed to rats at 0.5% of the diet.
  • Soybean lectin produces growth retardation when fed to rats at 1% of the diet.
  • castor bean lectin ricin (one of the most toxic natural substances known) is notorious for causing deaths of children, and has been used as an instrument of bioterrorism
  • Phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) is a lectin found in significant quantities (as much as 2.4–5% of total protein) in legumes such as red or white kidney beans, green beans and fava beans. PHA has a number of different properties, including the ability to induce mitosis, affect membrane transport and permeability to proteins, and agglutinate red blood cells.
  • legumes should generally be cooked to reduce amount of PHA
• goitrogens (glucosinolates) in Brassica spp.
  • these interfere with the thyroid uptake of iodine causing goitres and hypothyroidism
  • most are inactivated by cooking
  • spinach, cassava, peanuts, soybeans, strawberries, sweet potatoes, peaches, pears, and vegetables in the Brassica genus
  • consumption of large quantities of uncooked kale or cabbage
• Erucic acid in rape
  • may cause fatty deposit formation in heart muscle in animals
• Furocoumarins may cause photosensitivity as well as inhibiting liver enzymes (eg. bergamot in citrus peel)
• Amylase inhibitors
• Anti-thiamine compounds
  • Thiaminase (destroyed by cooking) is found in fish, crab, clams and in some fruits and vegetables such as blueberries, black currants, red beets, Brussels sprouts and red cabbage
• Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs)
  • found in comfrey, etc
  • Serious incidences of illness have been reported in people consuming cereal grains that are contaminated with the seeds of PA-containing plants
  • PAs are also present in milk from cows and goats and in honey
• oxalates
  • see dietary oxalates and hyperoxaluria
  • ingestion of foods containing high concentrations of oxalates may cause decreased bone growth, urolithiasis / renal stones / renal calculi, renal toxicity, vomiting, diarrhea, convulsions, coma and impaired blood clotting
  • ingestion of 22 g of oxalic acid could be lethal to a man
• Zucchini and cucurbitacins
  • these are very bitter;
  • 22 cases of human poisoning from ingestion of as little as 3g of bitter zucchini “Blackjack” were reported in Australia from 1981 to 1982
• shiitake mushrooms (when eaten raw or only lightly cooked)
  • 2% of people may develop shiitake flagellate dermatitis which occurs 12hrs to 5 days later and lasts 3weeks
  • appears to be a reaction to lentinan, a thermolabile polysaccharide
• Coumarins (tonka bean, woodruff, clover)
• Phytates and phytic acid
• Hypoglycin in Ackee
• Safrole
• Myristicin
• Tomatine in unripe tomatoes
• Japanese star anise
• turmeric in high doses as with supplements may cause severe hepatotoxicity which may be lethal - max daily intake should be 1.5-3g (half to one teaspoon)
• “unwashed” / “raw” poppy seeds in large amounts (especially as tea) may cause opiate effects and dependence as well as potential for overdose
• large amounts of “raw” poppy seeds from certain batches with high than usual levels of thebaine drank as home brewed poppy seed tea resulted in 19 people being hospitalised in Australia in 2022 including 1 cardiac death and 2 in ICU due to the chemical thebaine (this is normally destroyed when the seeds are cooked) which can cause seizures, severe muscle pain and severe muscle spasm, cramping, stiffness or abnormal movements and acute kidney injury
  • when large quantities of poppy seeds are brewed under certain conditions, the drink can offer a narcotic, possibly hallucinogenic, high.
• selenium rich foods such as brazil nuts may result in selenium poisoning / selenosis
  • each brazil nut contains 68-91mcg and toxic dose is > 400-800mcg/d
• some artificial sweeteners
  • erythritol
    • may build up as is only excreted in urine and those with high levels appear to have twice the cardiovascular risks ¹¹⁾
    • appears to increase stroke and AMI risks by having endothelial pro-thrombotic and vasoconstrictive effects ¹²⁾
• many “natural / herbal medicines”
  • eg. Hypericin in St. John’s wort
  • turmeric / curcumin have been identified as probable causes of fatal liver injury (TGA 203)
• Substances formed as the result of product abuse
  • Glycoalkaloids (solanine and chaconine) in potatoes
  • Furocoumarin in parsnips
• Substances formed as the result of food processing
  • Heterocyclic aromatic amines
  • Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
  • Acrylamide
  • Chloropropanols
  • Furan
  • Trans fatty acids
  • Nitrates and nitrosamines formed during drying, curing and preserving eg. processed meats
    • nitrosamines are carcinogenic
    • nitrates increase risk of aberrant S-nitrosylation, a chemical process whereby a molecule related to nitric oxide (NO) binds to sulfur (S) atoms within proteins (producing “SNO”)
      • aberrant S-nitrosylation reactions contribute to some forms of cancer, autism, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and other conditions
        • S-nitrosylation of protein CRTC1, impairs its ability to regulate genes that are critical for forming and maintaining connections between brain cells, an essential process for learning and long-term memory¹³⁾
  • Biogenic amines
• titanium dioxide
  • has been used as a food additive but there are concerns it may increase gut inflammation and damage DNA - particularly nanoparticles of TiO2
  • although poorly absorbed, in higher doses, it may accumulate in the liver, spleen, and kidneys
  • European Union banned TiO2 as a food additive in 2022
• chemical residues sprayed onto foods, on food containers, or from residual dust
  • organophosphates such as dimethoate and omethoate are still sprayed onto berries, mangoes, avocados and citrus fruits in Australia mainly to control spread of the Queensland fruit fly which has spread to now be from Darwin across to the east coast and down to Melbourne and NW Victoria but WA and Tas are free of it although WA has the Mediterranean fruit fly
    • dimethoate was banned by the European Union in 2019 and has been classified by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as a “possible human carcinogen” ¹⁴⁾
    • its use was banned on stone fruit, grapes, figs, guavas and strawberries in Australia in 2011
    • its use as a post-harvest dip to control fruit fly on avocados, mangoes and other tropical fruits like bananas, custard apples, feijoas, guavas, lychees and pawpaw “may not meet the safety criteria” and hence its use was suspended in Australia on these fruits in 2023 ¹⁵⁾
    • use on inedible peels makes it very low risk for humans in either ingestion quantities (unless you eat the peel) or skin absorption but the ongoing use on blueberries and raspberries is a potential issue if not thoroughly washed and these form a significant part of the diet
    • ingested doses of 1mg/kg/d in humans do not cause symptoms but do reduce blood cholinesterase activity hence human consumer risks are regarded as low.
    • dimethoate was banned in Europe in 2019 and it has been classified it as a “possible human carcinogen”.
  • Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) including PFOA, PFOS, GenX, Teflon
    • exposures generally occur from drinks (plastic water bottles or processed drinks, or contaminated water supplies) or from contaminated foods
    • water supplies may be contaminated particularly after these chemicals are used to put out major fires and the rain run off takes it into reservoirs
    • in 2025, various city drinking water supplies have been found to be contaminated eg. in Sydney, 31 PFAS chemicals were found in drinking water from sites at Ryde, Potts Hill, Prospect and North Richmond although they are currently at low “safe” levels
    • levels in 2 yr old children are particularly high - mainly from ingestion via contaminated fingers or foods ¹⁶⁾
    • choose safer products: Look for “phthalate-free,” “paraben-free,” and “fragrance-free” labels
    • avoid plastics labeled #3, #6, and #7 as these may contain BPA or similar chemicals, and avoid using plastics in microwaves to heat food
    • wash hands frequently, especially before eating
    • ventilate your home and use HEPA filters, when possible.
    • limit pesticide exposure: Wash produce thoroughly and consider organic options
    • clean regularly: use a damp cloth to reduce dust that may contain chemical residues
  • endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs)
    • bisphenols (BPA) and perhaps their substitutes
      • BPA is now removed from many plastics but “BPA-free” may just mean they have been substituted with inadequately researched substances - often another BPA-like one
      • concerns have been raised that some BPA substitutes may also cause adverse effects such as on the ovary¹⁷⁾
• contamination of food growing cycles
  • radio-active contamination
    • Cesium-137
      • it is a synthetic isotope, never found in nature prior to its creation by humans. Living organisms mistake it for elements used in building organic tissues. Once it enters the human or animal body, it accumulates in the muscles, heart, and liver.
      • has a half-life of about 30 years and tends to bioaccumulate in muscle and plant tissues - 80% of absorbed Cesium-137 concentrates in muscles
      • excessive accumulations increase cancer risk (acute radiation syndrome would require massive contamination of foods)
      • it is the most common nuclear isotope worldwide, settling across large areas of our planet after numerous nuclear tests in the USA and USSR, as well as several nuclear accidents.
      • Chernobyl resulted in particularly high hotspots in Belarus, Finland, eastern Sweden, Norway, parts of western Russia and Ukraine, northern Austria.
      • the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant accident caused by the 2011 tsunami, radioactive contamination of food occurred mainly due to the release of radionuclides such as iodine-131, cesium-134, and cesium-137 into the environment. These radionuclides contaminated various food items including vegetables, milk, fruit, seafood, meat, and tea, with initial radioactive iodine and cesium concentrations exceeding safety limits in some foods.
      • this can be detected in foods using a metering device with a Geiger counter

• ethanol
• methanol
• ingesting known toxic plants or animals
  • mushroom poisoning
  • many “essential oils” are toxic if ingested
    • β-Thujone in absinthe, wormwood, etc
      • β-thujone is considered neurotoxic and potentially hepatotoxic, with a narrow safety margin mostly due to its GABA receptor antagonistic effects and convulsant properties in high doses, maximum intakes should be limited to 3-7 mg/day
  • hydrocyanic acid (prussic acid) in cherry, apple and peach pits
  • eating 50 bitter almonds in adults may cause fatal cyanide poisoning
• drinking water contaminations
  • inadequately treated water supplies can result in gastro-intestinal infections such as cryptosporidium
  • two cancer-causing chemicals – arsenic and hexavalent chromium, or chromium-6 ¹⁸⁾
    • often appear together in water supplies and are common in US water supplies esp. the southern states
    • chromium-6 may cause stomach cancer, liver damage and reproductive harm (the film “Erin Brockovich”) while chromium-3 is much less toxic
    • arsenic in water can also contaminate foods grown in the water such as rice and rice-based products
    • long term aresenic exposure is linked to bladder, lung and skin cancers, as well as cardiovascular and developmental harm
  • high levels of nitrates (via fertilizer and manure runoff) also pose risks to children as well as higher risk of colorectal and ovarian cancer, very preterm birth, low birth weight, and neural tube defects and the “blue baby syndrome” ¹⁹⁾
  • the home filter system that's most effective for removing chromium-6, arsenic and nitrate from water is reverse osmosis while ion exchange technology is another option for reducing levels of these contaminants.
• food contaminations:
  • blue-green algae (BGA) toxins in waterways
  • ciguatera toxin reef fish food poisoning
  • Gempylotoxin
  • Tetramine in whelks
  • Trimethylamine oxide
  • Grayanotoxins in honey and direct contact with food
  • Tremetol contamination of milk from white snakeroot
  • coumarin and other toxins such as heavy metals (eg. lead), chromium, aluminium and sulfites in cinnamon which could be an issue for chai tea drinkers
    • Ceylon cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) is the highest quality cinnamon and is native to Sri Lanka and there are four major grades of Ceylon cinnamon based on the diameter of the cinnamon sticks, namely Alba, Continental, Mexican and Hamburg with Alba having a 6-mm diameter being the highest quality. Ceylon cinnamon has low or no coumarin natively.
    • Cassia cinnamon is a cheaper, stronger flavoured native of Myanmar and contains coumarin, species include Chinese cassia (C. cassia syn. C. aromaticum) from China and Vietnam, Indonesian (C. burmanii), from Sumatra and Java, Vietnamese cinnamon (C. loureiroi) and Indian cassia (C. tamala) from the north-eastern India and Myanmar.
    • however, 2025, it was found that 2/3rds of cinnamon studied that was being sold in Europe (89% of global production is from Vietnam and China) had safety concerns or fraud/quality issues with 9% substituted with Cassia cinnamon (even one brand stating produced in Sri Lanka) and which contained high levels of coumarin which poses risks to children under 10yrs old in particular while 11% suggested root aldulteration with aluminium levels above the 1.5g/kg safety limit for children.²⁰⁾
  • heavy metals and toxic metals and metalloids:
    • soil pollution by toxic metals (arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, nickel, and lead) has considerable impacts on food production and food safety; 16% of global cropland, is affected by toxic metal exceedances. Among the areas most at risk, southern China, northern and central India, and the Middle East are well documented to have elevated toxic metal concentrations in their soils. There is a “metal-enriched belt” stretching from the Mediterranean region eastwards through the Middle East, northern India and southern China as a result of anthropogenic, geogenic, and environmental factors such as degree of weathering and leaching. ²¹⁾
    • arsenic
      • rice consumption increases arsenic exposure, especially in Asian nations where rice consumption and arsenic concentrations are higher
      • inorganic arsenic levels in brown rice may be an issue for young children
      • global mean arsenic levels were found to be 0.277 μg/kg in brown rice and 0.231 μg/kg in white rice
      • a 2025 US study found the daily intake of arsenic was 0.295 μg/kg bw/day for the brown rice eaters-only subpopulation aged 6–24 months, exceeding the safe levels (0.21 μg/kg bw/day). ²²⁾
    • heavy metals
      • methyl mercury in fish
      • excessive levels of lead and cadmium were found in over a third of cocoa products (esp. organic cocoa) in a US study on products available 2014-2022 ²³⁾
      • excessive levels of lead as well as chromium and aluminium found in commercial cinnamon sold to Europe in a 2025 study ²⁴⁾
    • antimony (produces similar poisoning to arsenic primarily myocarditis)
      • leaches out of PET plastic bottles into liquids
      • EU limit for bottled water is < 5ug/L however UK produced fruit juice concentrates have been found to contain over 40ug/L
      • tolerable daily limit (WHO) is 6ug/kg/d
      • the Selwyn Block of earth crust below central Victoria including Melbourne has a lot of antimony and this was an issue with gold miners trying to separate it out²⁵⁾
  • selenium contamination of grains (esp. in China where it causes selenium poisoning / selenosis)
  • datura stramonium, the noxious weed thornapple, was accidentally picked with baby spinach and inadvertently sold in Australia in 2022 causing over 200 people to become ill with anticholinergic toxic effects
  • foods can be contaminated by pathogens eg. E.coli - see food poisoning
  • there is concern that “compostable” containers such as coffee cups which tend to have high levels of the toxic and very long lasting substance PFAS will result in foods being contaminated with PFAS from compost

• these are now everywhere contaminating almost everything but their adverse effects are yet to be recognised - it is possible than nanoplastics in organs may cause chronic inflammation
  • other nanoparticles (mainly zinc oxide, silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide, silver, and carbon nanotubes) have been shown have toxic effects which include cell death, production of oxidative stress, DNA damage, apoptosis, and induction of inflammatory responses ²⁶⁾
• millions are released into waste water systems each time a load of washing is done of synthetic clothes and these make their way into the oceans and the food chain
  • a single wash load can release several million microfibres and whilst advanced treatment plants can remove up to 99% of microfibres from water, it still leaves a lot that get into the oceans, and worse, the sewage sludge is often used as fertiliser on land releasing the rest if them
  • loosely woven fabric that feels fluffy or fuzzy, such as fleece, sheds more than a tightly woven one
  • washing full loads instead of partial loads reduces release of microfibres because garments are exposed to less friction during the wash cycle
  • cold water releases fewer microfibres than hot water
  • use less detergent, as detergent increases microfibre release
  • a front-loading washing machine produces less microfibre release than a top loader
  • dry laundry on a clothesline as running clothes in dryers releases additional microfibres into the air from the dryer vent
  • washing machines will soon be required to have microfibre filters - but requires the collected fibres to be disposed of appropriately, not washed down the sink!
  • microplastics contain chemical additives, including substances like phthalates and bisphenol A and affect health as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs)
  • cotton and wool also shed textile microfibres which also contain additional chemicals that have been shown to be toxic, such as fabric dyes, anti-wrinkle agents and flame retardants
  • contaminants that are present in the water, such as metals and pesticides, can stick to microplastic particles and get taken up by animals eating them with their food
• microplastics are generally defined as particles from 1 micron to 5mm in size
  • these can enter blood stream via inhalation or ingestion
  • a study in 2025 showed there were 50 percent more microplastic fragments (<1 micron) in brains analyzed in 2024 than in 2016²⁷⁾
  • the brains of dementia patients appear to have a three—to five-fold greater microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) accumulation as compared to healthy controls
  • capillaries are typically 5–8 μm in diameter, presenting a theoretical barrier to any particle more than ∼ 5–8 μm in more than one dimension which may result in slowed flow and more prolonged contact with vascular endothelium and blood cells and blocked blood flow in capillaries with resultant reduce cellular perfusion
  • MPs can interact with proteins present within the plasma, for example immunoglobulins, fibrinogen, or coagulation proteins to form a corona which may help the MP to not be recognised by the immune system and prolonging half life in blood
  • 100 μm size PE beads and 25 to 200 μm fragments have been shown to reduce cell viability, trigger cytokine IL-6 and TNF alpha release and increase hemolysis in human PBMCs, mast cells, red blood cells albeit at high MP concentration (of 1000 μg/mL) exposures
  • those of < 10 μm size (PS beads) induce cytokine and histamine impacts in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs)
  • cytokine IL-6, TNF alpha and histamine release have also been shown to occur following exposure to irregular-shaped PP exposure
  • in addition, besides the type, shape and size of the MP being crucial to interaction with the body, MPs contain thousands of additives, many known to be toxic
  • a UK 2024 study²⁸⁾ showed most common found in blood were polyethylene PE (up to 4000/L blood and found in 25% of donors), ethylene propylene diene monomer (up to 2000/L blood), ethylene–vinyl acetate(EVA)/ethylene vinyl alcohol (up to 1600/L blood), and polyamide (up to 1500/L blood)
    • NB. EVA on its own is commonly used in medical controlled drug delivery systems (such as contraceptives since it is thought to have favourable inflammation characteristics and is regarded as relatively inert), however, the EVA/EVOH/EVA multi-layer film is composed of three different types of polymer, affording the generation of several types of radicals for each type of polymer, i.e., PE, which links back to most abundant MP polymer detected in this study
    • no spherical beads, were found within the samples
• nanoparticles are generally defined as particles from 1nm to 100nm in size but other definitions are those that are 1nm to 1 micron (1000nm) in size
• nanoplastics are small enough to pass through the intestines into the blood stream and into various organs including heart and brain
  • nanoparticles can also enter the body through inhalation or through skin contact
  • smaller sized NPs (0.2 μm size, PS beads) can be ingested by macrophages and neutrophils leading to an inflammatory response
  • functionalised NPs (0.6 to 1 μm size PS and PS-amine beads) have also been shown to impact platelet aggregation and inhibit thrombus formation in rodent models
• 1L of bottled water contains ~10,000 microplastic particles and some 240,000 nanoplastic particles greater than 100nm in size, the main plastics in bottled water are polyamide (a type of nylon which may come from filters before the water is bottled), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and to a lesser extent, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride and polymethyl methacrylate ²⁹⁾
• 2025 analysis of Italian UHT milk and cheeses showed ripened cheese averaged 1,857 MP/kg, fresh cheese 1,280 MP/kg, and milk 350 MP/kg and of the 28 samples, polyethylene terephthalate led detections, present in 19 samples, followed by polyethylene in 15 and polypropylene in 12, while one-third measured 51-100 μm, and 20% fell below 50 μm.³⁰⁾
• adult males currently inhale 62,000 MNPs each year - suggesting a role for HEPA-filtration of air
• heating food in plastic containers, particularly in the microwave, may release up to 2.11 billion MNPs between for every square centimeter in just three minutes. Use glass containers instead.³¹⁾
• processed foods often have high levels of MNPs:
  • chicken nuggets contain 30 times more microplastics per gram than chicken breasts
  • canned food products also serve as potential sources of MNPs, as demonstrated by a recent study reporting an over 1,000% rise in urinary bisphenol A (BPA) levels after five days of daily canned food consumption
• tea bags are a significant source of MNPs